Trial Outcomes & Findings for Mindfulness, Mental Fatigue, Inhibitory Control and Endurance Performance in Athletes (NCT NCT05466136)

Last Updated: 2026-03-16

Results Overview

Neuroelectrical activity during the Flanker task was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG) with continuous data acquisition throughout task performance. Changes in neuroelectrical activity were operationalized as differences in event-related potential (ERP) amplitudes during the Flanker task (e.g., N2 and P3 components). The mean amplitudes of the N2 and P3 were quantified within predefined time windows of 250-350 ms and 350-550 ms, respectively, following stimulus onset.

Recruitment status

COMPLETED

Study phase

Target enrollment

90 participants

Primary outcome timeframe

From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During Flanker task, up to 15 minutes.

Results posted on

2026-03-16

Participant Flow

No participants were excluded from the study.

Participant milestones

Participant milestones
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness: Mental Fatigue Condition, Then Control Condition Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. They first underwent the mental fatigue condition, followed by the control condition.	Higher Trait Mindfulness: Control Condition, Then Mental Fatigue Condition Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. They first underwent the control condition, followed by the mental fatigue condition.	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness: Mental Fatigue Condition, Then Control Condition Participants with intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. They first underwent the mental fatigue condition, followed by the control condition.	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness: Control Condition, Then Mental Fatigue Condition Participants with intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. They first underwent the control condition, followed by the mental fatigue condition.	Lower Trait Mindfulness: Mental Fatigue Condition, Then Control Condition Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. They first underwent the mental fatigue condition, followed by the control condition.	Lower Trait Mindfulness: Control Condition, Then Mental Fatigue Condition Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. They first underwent the control condition, followed by the mental fatigue condition.
First Intervention STARTED	14	13	17	18	14	14
First Intervention COMPLETED	14	13	17	18	14	14
First Intervention NOT COMPLETED	0	0	0	0	0	0
Washout (3 to 7 days) STARTED	14	13	17	18	14	14
Washout (3 to 7 days) COMPLETED	14	13	17	18	14	14
Washout (3 to 7 days) NOT COMPLETED	0	0	0	0	0	0
Second Intervention STARTED	14	13	17	18	14	14
Second Intervention COMPLETED	14	13	17	18	14	14
Second Intervention NOT COMPLETED	0	0	0	0	0	0

Reasons for withdrawal

Withdrawal data not reported

Baseline Characteristics

Race and Ethnicity were not collected from any participant.

Baseline characteristics by cohort

Baseline characteristics by cohort
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire.	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire.	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire.	Total n=90 Participants Total of all reporting groups
Sport experience	8.48 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 3.18 • n=27 Participants	9.06 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.65 • n=35 Participants	7.64 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.95 • n=28 Participants	8.48 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.66 • n=90 Participants
Age, Continuous	20.22 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.97 • n=27 Participants	20.37 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.66 • n=35 Participants	19.89 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.40 • n=28 Participants	20.20 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.66 • n=90 Participants
Sex: Female, Male Female	3 Participants n=27 Participants	13 Participants n=35 Participants	8 Participants n=28 Participants	24 Participants n=90 Participants
Sex: Female, Male Male	24 Participants n=27 Participants	22 Participants n=35 Participants	20 Participants n=28 Participants	66 Participants n=90 Participants
Race and Ethnicity Not Collected	—	—	—	0 Participants Race and Ethnicity were not collected from any participant.
Region of Enrollment Taiwan	27 Participants n=27 Participants	35 Participants n=35 Participants	28 Participants n=28 Participants	90 Participants n=90 Participants
Height	170.74 cm STANDARD_DEVIATION 7.95 • n=27 Participants	168.21 cm STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.27 • n=35 Participants	167.57 cm STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.00 • n=28 Participants	168.77 cm STANDARD_DEVIATION 67.38 • n=90 Participants
Weight	70.11 kg STANDARD_DEVIATION 11.86 • n=27 Participants	64.22 kg STANDARD_DEVIATION 12.03 • n=35 Participants	68.68 kg STANDARD_DEVIATION 21.93 • n=28 Participants	67.38 kg STANDARD_DEVIATION 15.78 • n=90 Participants
Education level	14.67 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.78 • n=27 Participants	14.60 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.42 • n=35 Participants	14.14 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.11 • n=28 Participants	14.48 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.46 • n=90 Participants

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During Flanker task, up to 15 minutes.

Inhibitory control will be evaluated by a Flanker task in terms of reaction time in this study, and the types of trials are the congruent (i.e., \> \> \> \> \>) and incongruent (i.e., \< \< \> \< \<). In the Flanker task, participants were presented with five arrows and instructed to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to the direction where the middle arrow is pointing (i.e., left or right).

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Inhibitory Control: Reaction Time Mental fatigue condition(Incongruent trials)	461.01 millisecond Standard Error 12.57	448.68 millisecond Standard Error 11.04	444.35 millisecond Standard Error 12.34
Inhibitory Control: Reaction Time Control condition (Incongruent trials)	465.88 millisecond Standard Error 11.90	446.33 millisecond Standard Error 10.45	455.91 millisecond Standard Error 11.69

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During Flanker task, up to 15 minutes.

Inhibitory control will be evaluated by a Flanker task in terms of accuracy in this study, and the types of trials are the congruent (i.e., \> \> \> \> \>) and incongruent (i.e., \< \< \> \< \<). In the Flanker task, participants were presented with five arrows and instructed to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to the direction where the middle arrow is pointing (i.e., left or right).

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Inhibitory Control: Accuracy Mental fatigue condition (Incongruent trials)	89.26 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 2.23	84.32 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.96	80.04 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 2.19
Inhibitory Control: Accuracy Control condition (Incongruent trials)	89.14 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.92	87.21 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.69	84.16 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.89

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During graded exercise test, up to 30 minutes

The endurance performance in terms of time to exhaustion (TTE) will be assessed by graded exercise test (GXT) with Bruce protocol on treadmill (h/p/cosmos pulsar 3p, Germany). The initial speed and grade of the GXT will be set at 2.74 km/hr with grade of 10% and increase speed and grade every 3 min until participants are volitionally exhausted.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Endurance Performance: Time to Exhaustion Mental fatigue condition	807.62 second Standard Error 17.58	783.35 second Standard Error 15.55	752.94 second Standard Error 17.41
Endurance Performance: Time to Exhaustion Control condition	819.99 second Standard Error 17.38	794.97 second Standard Error 15.38	792.62 second Standard Error 17.21

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During graded exercise test, up to 30 minutes.

The maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) throughout the whole GXT will be recorded by a computerized indirect calorimetry system (SensorMedics Vmax 29C, USA), and until the participants reached volitional exhaustion. The VO2max in the study will be defined as the highest 30-s average value of VO2 measured during GXT.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Endurance Performance: Maximum Oxygen Consumption Mental fatigue condition	60.77 mL/kg/min Standard Error 1.50	61.70 mL/kg/min Standard Error 1.33	57.43 mL/kg/min Standard Error 1.48
Endurance Performance: Maximum Oxygen Consumption Control condition	61.39 mL/kg/min Standard Error 1.58	60.65 mL/kg/min Standard Error 1.40	58.87 mL/kg/min Standard Error 1.56

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During Flanker task, up to 15 minutes.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Changes in Neuroelectrical Activities N2 amplitude in mental fatigue condition (Incongruent trials)	-1.29 μV Standard Error 0.77	-1.47 μV Standard Error 0.67	-1.18 μV Standard Error 0.75
Changes in Neuroelectrical Activities N2 amplitude in control condition (Incongruent trials)	-0.12 μV Standard Error 1.04	-1.01 μV Standard Error 0.91	-0.89 μV Standard Error 1.02
Changes in Neuroelectrical Activities P3 amplitude in mental fatigue condition (Incongruent trials)	6.78 μV Standard Error 0.78	7.33 μV Standard Error 0.68	7.56 μV Standard Error 0.76
Changes in Neuroelectrical Activities P3 amplitude in control condition (Incongruent trials)	6.88 μV Standard Error 0.86	6.22 μV Standard Error 0.75	6.66 μV Standard Error 0.84

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Three standardized time points within each experimental session at baseline and post-intervention: T0 (before the Stroop task), T1 (after the Stroop task), and T2 (after the Flanker task).

Before, after Stroop task, and after Flanker task, changes in subjective mental fatigue was measured using a visual analog scale for mental fatigue (VAS-MF). Participants were asked the following questions "What is your mental fatigue level now?", and participants could indicate how mental fatigue on a scale from 0 (i.e., no mental fatigue at all) to 100 (i.e., completely mentally exhausted).

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Subjective Mental Fatigue T0 at mental fatigue condition	20.93 score on a scale Standard Error 2.33	26.29 score on a scale Standard Error 2.05	27.14 score on a scale Standard Error 2.29
Subjective Mental Fatigue T1 at mental fatigue condition	45.26 score on a scale Standard Error 2.91	48.00 score on a scale Standard Error 2.56	51.79 score on a scale Standard Error 2.86
Subjective Mental Fatigue T2 at mental fatigue condition	47.04 score on a scale Standard Error 3.57	52.57 score on a scale Standard Error 3.14	58.39 score on a scale Standard Error 3.51
Subjective Mental Fatigue T0 at control condition	22.04 score on a scale Standard Error 2.48	25.86 score on a scale Standard Error 2.18	24.64 score on a scale Standard Error 2.44
Subjective Mental Fatigue T1 at control condition	36.30 score on a scale Standard Error 2.78	39.43 score on a scale Standard Error 2.45	38.75 score on a scale Standard Error 2.73
Subjective Mental Fatigue T2 at control condition	35.56 score on a scale Standard Error 2.98	39.71 score on a scale Standard Error 2.62	39.64 score on a scale Standard Error 2.93

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During Stroop task, up to 30 minutes.

During the intervention, the reaction time in both Stroop tasks was calculated as an index of objective mental fatigue.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Objective Mental Fatigue: Reaction Time in Stroop Task Mental fatigue condition	636.66 millisecond Standard Error 13.55	626.64 millisecond Standard Error 11.90	617.74 millisecond Standard Error 13.31
Objective Mental Fatigue: Reaction Time in Stroop Task Control condition	587.14 millisecond Standard Error 13.02	591.25 millisecond Standard Error 11.441	589.76 millisecond Standard Error 12.79

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. During Stroop task, up to 30 minutes.

During the intervention, the accuracy in both Stroop tasks was calculated as an index of objective mental fatigue.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Objective Mental Fatigue: Accuracy in Stroop Task Mental fatigue condition	84.18 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.96	86.39 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.72	85.48 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.96
Objective Mental Fatigue: Accuracy in Stroop Task Control condition	89.95 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 12.29	90.29 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.14	89.28 Percentage of correct responses Standard Error 1.29

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Two standardized time points within each experimental session at baseline and post-intervention: T0 (before the Stroop task) and T1 (after the Stroop task).

Mood state was determined by the difference in scores on the Brunel Mood Scale-Chinese (BRUMS-C) between before (i.e., T0) and after (i.e., T1) Stroop task. The BRUMS-C consists of 23 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale and comprises six subscales: anger, confusion, depression, tension, fatigue, and vigor. Each subscale score is calculated as the mean of its corresponding items, with possible scores ranging from 0 to 4. Higher mean scores indicate greater intensity of the respective mood state.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Higher Trait Mindfulness n=27 Participants Participants with higher trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Intermediate Trait Mindfulness n=35 Participants Participants with =intermediate trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire	Lower Trait Mindfulness n=28 Participants Participants with lower trait mindfulness, as measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
Mood State BRUMS-Confusion at T0 in mental fatigue condition	0.481 units on a scale Standard Error 0.108	0.35 units on a scale Standard Error 0.095	0.616 units on a scale Standard Error 0.106
Mood State BRUMS-Tension at T0 in mental fatigue condition	0.12 units on a scale Standard Error 0.067	0.1 units on a scale Standard Error 0.059	0.188 units on a scale Standard Error 0.066
Mood State BRUMS-Anger at T0 in mental fatigue condition	0.148 units on a scale Standard Error 0.05	0.057 units on a scale Standard Error 0.04	0.116 units on a scale Standard Error 0.049
Mood State BRUMS-Anger at T1 in mental fatigue condition	0.111 units on a scale Standard Error 0.08	0.121 units on a scale Standard Error 0.073	0.375 units on a scale Standard Error 0.081
Mood State BRUMS-Anger at T0 in control condition	0.093 units on a scale Standard Error 0.065	0.179 units on a scale Standard Error 0.057	0.107 units on a scale Standard Error 0.064
Mood State BRUMS-Anger at T1 in control condition	0.056 units on a scale Standard Error 0.061	0.107 units on a scale Standard Error 0.054	0.196 units on a scale Standard Error 0.06
Mood State BRUMS-Confusion at T1 in mental fatigue condition	0.676 units on a scale Standard Error 0.146	0.85 units on a scale Standard Error 0.129	1.339 units on a scale Standard Error 0.144
Mood State BRUMS-Confusion at T0 in control condition	0.259 units on a scale Standard Error 0.099	0.607 units on a scale Standard Error 0.087	0.455 units on a scale Standard Error 0.098
Mood State BRUMS-Confusion at T1 in control condition	0.472 units on a scale Standard Error 0.109	0.764 units on a scale Standard Error 0.095	0.777 units on a scale Standard Error 0.107
Mood State BRUMS-Depression at T0 in mental fatigue condition	0.12 units on a scale Standard Error 0.067	0.1 units on a scale Standard Error 0.059	0.188 units on a scale Standard Error 0.066
Mood State BRUMS-Depression at T1 in mental fatigue condition	0.185 units on a scale Standard Error 0.082	0.129 units on a scale Standard Error 0.072	0.402 units on a scale Standard Error 0.08
Mood State BRUMS-Depression at T0 in control condition	0.083 units on a scale Standard Error 0.068	0.214 units on a scale Standard Error 0.06	0.089 units on a scale Standard Error 0.067
Mood State BRUMS-Depression at T1 in control condition	0.037 units on a scale Standard Error 0.066	0.207 units on a scale Standard Error 0.058	0.214 units on a scale Standard Error 0.064
Mood State BRUMS-Tension at T1 in mental fatigue condition	0.185 units on a scale Standard Error 0.082	0.129 units on a scale Standard Error 0.072	0.402 units on a scale Standard Error 0.08
Mood State BRUMS-Tension at T0 in control condition	0.083 units on a scale Standard Error 0.068	0.214 units on a scale Standard Error 0.06	0.089 units on a scale Standard Error 0.067
Mood State BRUMS-Tension at T1 in control condition	0.037 units on a scale Standard Error 0.066	0.207 units on a scale Standard Error 0.058	0.214 units on a scale Standard Error 0.064
Mood State BRUMS-Fatigue at T0 in mental fatigue condition	0.713 units on a scale Standard Error 0.155	0.907 units on a scale Standard Error 0.136	0.929 units on a scale Standard Error 0.152
Mood State BRUMS-Fatigue at T1 in mental fatigue condition	1.78 units on a scale Standard Error 0.202	1.993 units on a scale Standard Error 0.178	2.036 units on a scale Standard Error 0.199
Mood State BRUMS-Fatigue at T0 in control condition	0.574 units on a scale Standard Error 0.133	1.2 units on a scale Standard Error 0.117	0.902 units on a scale Standard Error 0.131
Mood State BRUMS-Fatigue at T1 in control condition	1.32 units on a scale Standard Error 0.174	2.079 units on a scale Standard Error 0.153	1.884 units on a scale Standard Error 0.171
Mood State BRUMS-Vigor at T0 in mental fatigue condition	2.556 units on a scale Standard Error 0.173	2.219 units on a scale Standard Error 0.152	1.81 units on a scale Standard Error 0.17
Mood State BRUMS-Vigor at T1 in mental fatigue condition	1.383 units on a scale Standard Error 0.178	1.267 units on a scale Standard Error 0.156	1.036 units on a scale Standard Error 0.175
Mood State BRUMS-Vigor at T0 in control condition	2.37 units on a scale Standard Error 0.172	2.152 units on a scale Standard Error 0.151	1.5 units on a scale Standard Error 0.169
Mood State BRUMS-Vigor at T1 in control condition	1.58 units on a scale Standard Error 0.192	1.324 units on a scale Standard Error 0.168	0.905 units on a scale Standard Error 0.188

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: From enrollment to the end of second intervention at 1 week. Immediately after completing Flanker task and GXT.

The level of effort exerted by participants during the Flanker task and GXT was assessed using the VAS for motivation (VAS-M). Immediately after completing each task, participants were also asked to mark a 100mm line to rate their motivation to perform at their best (i.e., "How motivated are you to perform to the best of your ability in the task?") on a scale ranging from 0, indicating "not at all," to 100, indicating "extremely motivated."